The date when Rome was founded by Romulus, according to legend.
The marsh between the Palatine and Capitoline hills is drained by the Cloaca Maxima (date not certain).
The Romans drive out their Etruscan king, Tarquinius Superbus, and found a republic.
The Romans capture and burn Carthage.
Julius Caesar invades Britain, but does not stay long.
Julius Caesar invades Britain a second time, but again returns to Gaul.
Murder of Julius Caesar.
The battle of Actium. Defeat for Antony and Cleopatra.
Octavian takes the name Augustus and becomes the first Roman emperor.
Death of Virgil
Jesus Christ is born (date not certain).
Three legions under Quintilius Varus are defeated by Arminius in Germany.
Death of Augustus; Tiberius becomes emperor.
Death of Livy.
Death of Ovid.
Crucifixion of Jesus (date not certain).
Death of Tiberius; Caligula becomes emperor.
Death of Caligula; Claudius becomes emperor.
Britain is conquered by a force sent by Claudius.
Death of Claudius; Nero becomes emperor.
The apostle Paul is sent to Rome. In Britain, Boadicea revolts against the Romans and is defeated.
Rome burns: According to Tacitus, the fire was started by Nero.
Nero commits suicide.
Vesuvius erupts, burying Pompeii and Herculaneum.
The Colosseum is completed after 10 years work.
Nerva becomes emperor. He is the first of the " five good Emperors ".
Hadrian's wall is completed.
Antoninus Pius becomes Emperor.
Death of Antoninus Pius.
Marcus Aurelius becomes Emperor.
Death of Marcus Aurelius, the last of the " five good Emperors ". The beginning of a century of war and disorder.
Diocletian divides the empire into two parts, east and west, for the first time.
Constantine defeats his rival, Maxentius, and becomes sole emperor in the west.
An edict of tolerance ends the persecution of Christians.
Constantine defeats the eastern Emperor, Licinius, at Adrianople and Chrysopolis (both in Turkey) and gains control of the whole empire, east as well as west.
Byzantium is enlarged and renamed as Constantinople.
Constantinople becomes the capital of the empire.
Death of Constantine.
Visigoths cross the Danube.
The Visigoths defeat the Romans at Adrianople.
The final division of the empire into east ( byzantine empire ) and west.
Roman garrisons leave Britain.
The Visigoth s, led by Alaric, attack Rome.
Atilla the Hun invades Italy, but spares Rome.
Rome is plundered by the Vandal s; the power of Rome is almost destroyed, and the next few emperors have very short reigns.
Romulus Augustulus, the last Roman Emperor, is dismissed with a pension by Odoacer, who becomes king of Italy.
Muslims capture Constantinople; the end of the eastern empire.
The sea battle between the forces of Rome, led by Octavian, and the forces of Antony and Cleopatra, which took place in 31 BC. Cleopatra fled from the battle with her Egyptian galleys, and Anthony followed her. Their remaining ships surrendered to Octavian. Antony and Cleopatra both killed themselves shortly afterwards.
A town in Turkey, named after the emperor Hadrian, and now called Edirne. Because it was on an important route, it was the site of several battles. Constantine defeated his rival Licinius there in 324 AD. There was an important battle there between the Romans and the Visigoths in 378 AD, which was a terrible defeat for the Romans. The emperor Valens was killed, and his army was destroyed. After this, barbarian invasions became more frequent.
Aeneas was the legendary hero of Virgil's epic poem, the Aeneid. He was one of the defenders of Troy, and when Troy was defeated he went on a long journey, ending up in Italy where he founded a city called Lavinium, the parent city of Rome. The poem was intended to glorify Rome, and Augustus in particular, by showing that Augustus was descended from a great hero.
(40 AD - 93 AD) Roman governor of Britain, who was made famous by the writings of his son-in law Tacitus. He did much to "Romanise" Britain. He intended to conquer the whole of Britain, including Scotland, and also Ireland, but he was recalled to Rome.
The wife of Emperor Claudius, who apparently poisoned him so that Nero, her son by an earlier marriage, could become Emperor.
One of the barbarian tribes that overran the Roman empire. They were a nomadic people of the steppes to the northeast of the black sea. After they were defeated by the Hun s, in about 370 AD, some of them joined with the huns. Others fled westward to Gaul. These joined with the Vandal s, and eventually went with the Vandals to north Africa.
King of the Visigoths. He complained that his people had not received payments owed to them, and he attacked various cities in Greece. He invaded Italy in 401 AD. He suffered some setbacks, but eventually, in 410 AD, he sacked Rome (see sack of Rome ). For three days his men looted the city, but did little damage. He then made plans to go to Africa, but changed his mind. He died while he and his Visigoths were marching northwards.
The Antonine Emperors were Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius, his adopted heir.
The Antonine wall was a wall across Scotland, the building of which was ordered by Antoninus Pius, and built in about 143 AD. It was about 160 km to the north of Hadrian's wall, which it was intended to replace, but it was abandoned after about fifty years, and Hadrian's wall once again became the frontier of Roman-controlled Britain.
Lived from 86 AD to 161 AD. Emperor from 138 AD. The fourth of the " five good Emperors ". He followed Hadrian, who had adopted him as his successor. His reign was a peaceful one. He was from Gaul, and his wife was from Spain, but they rarely travelled. He ordered the building of the Antonine wall. He and Marcus Aurelius, his successor, are called the Antonine emperors.
A friend of Caesar who pursued and defeated Caesar's killers. For a time he worked together with Octavian and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus in a Triumvirate, but he became unpopular when he became involved with Queen Cleopatra of Egypt, and planned to give her and their children large slices of Roman territory. He was defeated by Octavian at Actium in 31 BC, and he and Cleopatra committed suicide in 30 BC.
Aqueducts were narrow canals built by the Romans to carry water to major towns. They were remarkable engineering achievements, especially where they were taken across valleys on a series of arches. Many of them are still standing, and some are still in use. There were eleven separate aqueducts supplying water to Rome itself They supplied water for drinking, and also for fountains and public baths. The aqueduct at Segovia, in Spain, and the Pont du Gard aqueduct at Nimes, in France, are particularly well preserved.
Roman architecture borrowed ideas from Greece, but was more monumental. The Colosseum was regarded as one of the wonders of the world, and triumphal arches, built to celebrate victories, became ever larger as Emperors vied to outdo their predecessors Palaces and public baths were also built on a large scale. This was made much easier by the Roman development of concrete as a building material. Rich people lived in villa s, country houses with courtyards and amenities such as hypocausts (underfloor heating). Many poorer people lived crowded together in towns in badly built tenements, which often collapsed. The semicircular arch was a particularly Roman element of building, and the barrel vault was like an elongated arch, used as a roof. Several emperors had an impact on architecture. Augustus claimed to have found Rome as a city of brick, and left it as a city of marble. Nero had much of the city rebuilt after fires, with a magnificent golden palace for his own use. Hadrian designed the Tivoli villa, near Rome. One of the most important sources of information on Roman architectural ideas is the book, De Architectura, which was written about 27 BC by Vitruvius. See also basilica, column, forum, palace.
Arminius was the leader of the Cherusci, a German tribe, but for a time he served Rome and was made a Roman citizen. In 9 AD he led his tribe in an attack against three legions of the Roman army, led by Quintilius Varus, and defeated them. This was a big setback for the Romans. He continued to fight against the Romans, and against the Marcomanni, another German tribe, until in 19 AD he was killed by members of his own tribe. The name " Arminius " is a romanised form of Herman, which was his original German name.
The Roman army was a highly disciplined force which for a long time kept peace in the empire and kept out any invading barbarians. At first it consisted of Roman citizens who had property to defend and were also motivated by love of their country. Later it became a professional army of full-time paid soldiers. All soldiers had to swear, once a year on the first of January, that they would serve and protect the emperor. Legionaries were the backbone of the army. They were all Roman citizens. There were also helpers, called auxiliaries, members of conquered races. Every legionary had to serve for twenty years, possibly far from Rome, far from his family, and surrounded by hostile tribes. Pay was low, the food was not good, and the work was hard, but the soldiers had pride in being part of a powerful force, and could look forward to a pension on retiring. They fought in close formations, sometimes joining shields to form a "tortoise", or testudo, to protect against arrows. They also made powerful war machines such as giant catapults and battering rams. The army was divided into numbered legion s, which in turn were divided into ten cohort s, which were divided into centuries, each of up to 100 men. A century was led by a centurion. There was also the Praetorian guard, which protected the emperor.
Roman art was heavily influenced by Greek art, learned from the Etruscans and the Greeks of Southern Italy. Many Greek artists came to work for the great Roman families, decorating houses using mosaics, statues and paintings showing scenes from Roman history and mythology. In the time of Julius Caesar, statues were made particularly lifelike. There was a great development in art during the reign of Augustus. See also architecture and literature.
The lifetime of Augustus was the golden age of Latin literature and art. The great writers included Virgil, Horace, Livy and Ovid. Because of this, any period known for the quality of its writers is sometimes called an Augustan age.
Emperor from 27 BC to 14 AD. Originally called Octavian; he was the first Roman Emperor (Imperator). Since 30 BC, when he defeated Antony and Cleopatra, he had been undisputed master of the Roman world. Octavian took the title Imperator Caesar Augustus in 27 BC. With his military might he could keep Roman politics under control, and with the treasure of Egypt to help him he set about the task of increasing his power. Honours and titles were heaped on him. He was re-elected consul every year until 23 BC; then he was given the power of a tribune (though not the title - being a patrician, he wasn't eligible). He was made Pontifex Maximus, an important religious title, and, especially in the province s, he was worshipped as a god. He was a gifted administrator. He kept the senate but reduced its power and size. He allowed non-aristocrats to become knights, or "eques". He restored morale and unified Italy. He reorganised the control of the provinces. The soldiers of the army all had to swear to serve Augustus, and his chosen successor after him, an oath that they renewed every 1st of January. Although he reduced the size of the army, it was the allegiance of the soldiers that made him all-powerful. During his long reign Rome was prosperous and art and literature flourished - see Augustan Age.
Emperor from 161 AD to 180 AD. The last of the " five good Emperors ". He was actually joint emperor with his adopted brother, Lucius Verus, but Lucius was happy to fade into the background, leaving Marcus to get the publicity. Marcus Aurelius was more of a scholar and philosopher than a soldier, but he had to fight hard for several years to protect the Danube frontier against a horde of German tribes. He also had to cope with floods and famine in Italy, and earthquakes in Asia. In his moments of spare time he wrote a book, called "meditations" outlining his philosophy. He also made several improvements to Roman law. It can be seen from his writings that he had a lot of ideas in common with the Christians, though he did not believe in an afterlife; nevertheless, he disliked Christianity, and during his reign there was some persecution of Christians.
An auxiliary was a member of a conquered race, brought in as a helper in the Roman army.
The tribes who lived outside the empire were called barbarians. The huns came from the most distant lands, and were the most feared. The Alani were a people of the Asian steppes who were defeated by the Hun s, and allied with them. Most of the other northern barbarians were Germanic tribes, who were forced to invade the Roman empire after they were displaced by the Huns - see barbarian invasion. They included the Angles, Goth s, Franks, Jutes, Saxons, Suebi and Vandals. The barbarians originally had their own tribal religion s, but many were influenced by the Roman empire and adopted Roman gods, and later they were converted to Christianity.
Forty years after the death of Constantine, barbarians began to invade the Roman empire in large numbers. The huns had swept across Asia and northern Europe, displacing numerous other tribes which sought refuge within the empire. Some of these tribes were employed by the Romans as defenders of the frontier, but their allegiance was to their tribal chiefs, not to Rome. The battle of Adrianopolis, at which the Visigoths decisively defeated the Romans, was a turning point. After that, Roman power grew smaller, and Rome was sacked in 410 AD and again in 455 AD. The invading barbarians set up a number of small kingdoms, bringing the empire in the west to an end (though the byzantine empire continued).
Basilicas were large halls, built by the Romans as law courts and banks, and later as Christian churches.
Roman public baths were not just a place for having a dip. They were important social meeting places. A large city would have several baths. Emperors had massive bathing houses built, as a sign of their magnificence. In Rome the largest baths were those of Caracalla, Diocletian, Antoninus and Trajan, and there were several smaller ones. The site of the Baths of Caracalla covered 28 acres, and they could accomodate about 1600 bathers. The water was supplied by aqueducts. There were three main bath chambers; The Frigidarium, or cold room, the Caldarium, or hot room, and the Tepidarium, or lukewarm room.
A general of the Byzantine empire who defeated the Vandals of North Africa in 533 AD, and managed to win back parts of Italy from the Ostrogoths between 535 AD and 540 AD.
Queen of the Iceni tribe. She revolted against the Romans in 61 AD and burned their settlement at London, but her army was defeated and she took poison.
Britain was invaded in 55 BC by Julius Caesar, but his army was not large enough to achieve much, and he did not stay for long. Britain was finally conquered by Claudius in 43 AD, and remained a part of the Empire until the last soldiers left in about 429 AD. There were revolts against Roman occupation, including one by Boadicea. The north of Scotland was never conquered. Agricola might have accomplished this task, but he was recalled. Hadrian's wall and the Antonine wall were built to keep out the tribes of Picts who lived to the north. At the end of the Roman occupation, the Britons had become thoroughly Romanised, and sent letters to Rome asking for the soldiers to return, to protect them from the invading Angles and Saxons, but they never received a reply.
One of the conspirators agains Julius Caesar. He had originally sided with Pompey against Caesar, but had been pardoned by Caesar after Pompey's downfall. Caesar treated him like a son, making him governor of Cisalpine Gaul, and also promising him the Governorship of Macedonia, but he nevertheless turned against his benefactor. When Caesar saw that Brutus was among the assassins, he is reported to have said "You too, my son?" or possibly "You too, Brutus ?"
The division of the Roman empire was begun by Diocletian, who, after appointing several joint emperor s, took responsibility for the eastern provinces only. After the empire became permanently divided into east and west, in 395 AD,the eastern part became known as the Byzantine empire, after the original name of its capital, Byzantium. The Byzantine Empire came to an end in 1453 AD when Muslims captured Constantinople.
A town on the straits of the Bosporus founded by Greek sailors in 600 BC, it was renamed Constantinople by the emperor Constantine in 328 AD and became his capital two years later.
Julius Caesar was a brilliant soldier who won many victories for Rome, conquering Gaul in the years 58 BC - 51 BC. He invaded Britain in 55 BC, and again in 54 BC, but did not stay long enough to conquer - his main purpose was to punish the British for the aid which they had given to the Gauls. After winning a battle with Pompey, Caesar became Dictator of Rome in 48 BC, with almost total power. He showed himself to be an able statesman. Caesar was given many titles, and made dictator for life, but he was not called an emperor. That title was taken by his successor, Augustus, in 27 BC. Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC by a group of conspirators who believed that he had become too powerful. The name " Caesar " was not originally a title, but it was adopted as one by the later emperor s, as a way of associating themselves with his greatness. It eventually came to mean "deputy emperor ". Diocletian, for example, was assisted by several deputies, who all took Caesar as a title.
The roman calendar was divided into months which were originally called Martius, Aprilis, Maius, Iunius, Quintilis, Sextilis, September, October, November, and December. Ianuarius and Februarius were soon added. In 46 BC it was reorganised by Julius Caesar, with a leap year of 366 days every fourth year. This was called the Julian Calendar. Later Quintilis and Sextilis were renamed Julius and Augustus, in honour of Julius Caesar and the emperor Augustus respectively. The first day of each month was called the kalends, and the middle day of each month was called the ides.
(12 AD - 41 AD ). Roman Emperor from 37 AD to his death. At first he was popular; he spent freely, and he was the son of a popular commander. Soon, however, the power given to him apparently went to his head; he ordered many executions, and did strange things. On one occasion he assembled troops to invade Britain, but then changed his mind and told them to collect shells from the beach instead. It was said that he asked for his favourite horse, Incitatus, to be made a consul, but this may not be true. The Praetorian guard decided that they must get rid of him, and he was murdered by a tribune of the guard as he was attending the games in Rome.
One of the seven hills of rome, very near the centre.
A picturesque island in the gulf of Naples. Augustus was very attached to this island, and after him Tiberius actually made it his capital, preferring it to the bustle of Rome. He had a dozen villas built, and filled with treasures. As Tiberius' tyranny grew, the island also became the site of dungeons and torture chambers.
One of the sons of Septimius Severus. He murdered his brother, Geta, to avoid having to share the empire with him. He was emperor from 211 AD to 217 AD, when he was assassinated. He was a tyrant who toured many parts of the empire, ordering the death of any person or group of people who displeased him. The baths of Caracalla were large public baths to the south of Rome that were begun by his father, Septimius Severus, and completed in Caracalla's reign.
A City in North Africa that was one of Rome's greatest rivals until 146 BC, when it was captured and burned. The wars against Carthage were called the Punic wars. Later, a Roman city was built on the site of Carthage. It was captured by the Vandals in 439 AD.
Underground cemeteries that were dug near Rome and several other cities. Burial within the city walls was not permitted. The main catacombs of Rome were to the south, near the Appian way, where very soft volcanic rock could easily be dug. They became important centres for Christians, who went their to honour the saints who had died, and to conduct services. Sometimes, when there was persecution of Christians, they would take refuge there.
234 BC - 149 BC. A Roman censor and senator who hated luxury - his farmhouse was unplastered and had no tapestries or other decoration - and thought that Greek ideas were weakening Rome. When his envoys told him how rich and successful Carthage was becoming, he became determined that it should be destroyed, and said so whenever he spoke in the senate.
A magistrate responsible for conducting the census, and also responsible for public morals. Two censors were appointed every five years, and they would resign when their job was complete, which took about eighteen months. Cato was the best known of the censors. From 22 BC onwards the duties of the censor were transferred to the emperor.
The leader of a "century", a division of the Roman army containing between 80 and 100 men. Centurions wore distinctive uniforms with pleated kilts and boots lined with fur. They had vine staffs as symbols of their rank.
Christianity began with the teaching of Jesus Christ, and was spread by his followers (apostles) and by Saint Paul. It quickly became popular, especially in the east, but there was persecution of Christians by several emperors because the Christians would not worship the traditional Roman gods, and in particular they would not worship the emperors as gods. Some Christians escaped from persecution by hiding in catacombs. Persecution did not stop the new religion fron growing, and in 313 AD The Emperor Constantine, who had become a Christian, issued an edict of toleration which allowed freedom of religion, and arranged for the building of several Christian basilicas. Following his example, the whole empire quickly became Christian. The strife did not end there, however. The Christians could not agree among themselves. The followers of Arius (called Arians) believed that Christ was not God. Arianism was condemned at the council of Nicaea in 325 AD, but did not disappear. Julian the Apostate tried to reverse the tide against paganism, but was unsuccessful. He was the last pagan emperor. From very early times the church was organised into a hierarchy - see Pope.
A Roman statesman of early republican days, who was made dictator during an emergency - a Roman army was surrounded and needed to be rescued. When he was given the news he was working on his farm. He defeated the enemy in a single day. As soon as the emergency had been dealt with, he resigned as dictator and went back to his farm.
Born in 10 BC, and emperor 41 AD - 54 AD. He was ugly and clumsy, and had a speech impediment. He pretended to be an idiot in order to save himself during his nephew Caligula's despotic rule. He was actually an intelligent historian and writer, but all the books he wrote have since become lost. When he became Emperor, he tried to live down his "mad" image by invading Britain. Like many other Emperor s, He began as an able and just ruler but later became tyrannical. He was apparently poisoned by his wife Agrippina.
Queen of Egypt, who joined forces with Mark Antony and was defeated by the Roman forces at the battle of Actium in 31 BC. Rather than allow herself to be paraded through the streets of Rome in chains, she committed suicide. She allowed an asp, a small snake, to bite her because she had made a study of poisons, and found that an asp seemed to put its victims painlessly to sleep.
Expansion of empire was sometimes achieved by military conquest, and sometimes by making " client state s", with kings dependent on the Emperor and owing allegiance to him. These client states could be completely taken over at a later date.
A large sewer built about 575 BC to drain the land around the Palatine and Capitoline hills. This area had once been a burial ground; it became the forum, at the very centre of the city. The cloaca was originally an uncovered channel lined with stone, but was later covered over with barrel vaulting (semicircular arches). The opening of the Cloaca into the Tiber can still be seen, a memorial to the enduring quality of Roman construction. When it was built, Rome was still a small town ruled over by kings, with no empire.
A major divisions of a Roman legion, or of the praetorian guard. A legion was divided into ten cohort s, and the praetorian guard was divided into nine cohorts. Each cohort was divided into centuries, and each century contained up to 100 men.
A giant amphitheatre built in Rome between 70 AD and 80 AD. It could seat 50,000 people, and was the scene of thousands of fights between gladiator s, or between men and animals. It was dameged by lightning, earthquakes and vandalism in the middle ages; the seats and the floor have gone, but it still stands as an impressive monument.
The Romans made temples with columns to support the roof, in imitation of the Greeks; they also erected single column s, with statues at the top, to honour important people. Roman columns were more ornate than Greek ones. Often they were applied to a building as decoration, and didn't actually hold anything up.
Emperor from 180 AD to 192 AD. After a failed attempt to assassinate him in 183 AD, he came to fear and hate the Senate, and had many put to death. He sometimes shot wild animals with arrows at the circus, and took to dressing himself up as hercules. He renamed Rome "The colony of Commodus ". He fought 735 times as a gladiator. He had full armour and a sword; his opponents were given a net and a long fork. He may have pleased the crowds, but most of the noble Romans were shocked by the sight of their emperor doing something usually done by slaves and criminals. Of course, they didn't dare to say this to him. His advisers arranged for him to be strangled in his bed by a wrestler on the last night of 192 AD.
Rome first became prosperous because it was at the junction of two important routes; the Romans therefore knew the importance of roads, and built many thousands of miles of them. However, most of the lands of the Empire were around the Mediterranean, and could be reached most easily by sea. The Romans were originally at home only on land, but they had to build up an effective navy to beat the Carthaginians, and it was this which enabled them to control the Mediterranean. They also developed an efficient postal service.
Emperor from 312 AD to 337 AD (from 312 to 324 he was emperor in the west only. From 324 onwards he had control of the whole empire ). Constantine was the first Christian Emperor. He said that he became Christian in 313 AD after seeing a vision. However, he did not actually become baptised until shortly before he died. He enlarged the town of Byzantium, had it renamed Constantinople in his honour, and made it his capital.
Constantine realized that Byzantium was the ideal site for a Capital city when he first saw it, as it commanded the straits of the Bosporus, an important trading Route, and trade had made the town wealthy. He had the site enlarged, and renamed Constantinople in his honour. It officially became his capital in 330 AD. Later, it became the capital of the Byzantine empire. It is now called Istanbul, having been conquered by Muslims in 1453 AD.
The consuls were the most important magistrates in the Roman republic, before the days of the emperors. There were two of them, and they presided over the senate and controlled the army. They were elected for one year only, and one could veto the decisions of the other. The position became less important in the days of the emperors. Augustus had himself elected as a consul every year; it was said that the emperor Caligula asked for his horse to be made a consul.
A Roman province, now Romania. It was conquered by Trajan in 107 AD, and abandoned in 271 AD because of pressure from the Goths. See expansion of Empire.
A group of ten men who, in the early days of the Roman republic, produced a set of laws for Rome, called the laws of the twelve tables.
A way of punishing a group of soldiers who left their post. One in ten of the deserting soldiers would be chosen by drawing lots, and the unlucky ones would be clubbed to death. The drawing of lots involved every soldier taking a thin stick from a bag, and one in every ten sticks was shorter than the others.
A post which was given to a general when the Roman republic was threatened with an extreme emergency. The dictator had almost absolute power, but he was expected to resign when the emergency was dealt with, and to keep his position for two years at the most. When Julius Caesar was made dictator for life, some people decided that he was taking too much power for himself, and he was assassinated. See also Cincinattus and Fabius.
Emperor from 284 AD to 305 AD. Like many others, he was a commander who was proclaimed emperor by his army. During his reign he had large public baths built in Rome. He reorganised the government, making the senate weaker than ever. Then, believing the empire was too much for one man to control, he appointed three other emperors. Each of the four emperors had a deputy, called a Caesar, to help him with the administration. Diocletian then took responsibility for the eastern provinces only, beginning the division which led to the formation of the Byzantine empire. During his reign the last major persecution of Christians took place. He expected to be worshipped by his subjects as a god, the "invincible sun". His court was extravagant - even his shoes were studded with jewels. In 301 AD he introduced wage and price controls because of high inflation - see economy. He retired to a magnificent palace in a walled city (Spalato, which became the town of Split, in former Yugoslavia), where he lived quietly and grew cabbages. There, his bedchamber was surrounded by an exercise room, and hot and cold baths.
When a province was added to the empire, it was expected to pay a regular tribute to Rome. The regular censuses were intended to discover exactly how much each province could afford to pay. The Roman governor would be assisted by an efficient network of tax gatherers. The money collected would pay for the army and the government. Because of the tributes from province s, and because slave labour provided a practically cost-free workforce, some noble families became very wealthy. They would pay for temples and other public buildings. The first emperors had a treasury, the fiscus, which in theory was separate from the public treasury. This soon became the main money store for the empire. An extravagant emperor (such as Caligula ) would spend a fortune on public games, or gifts to the army, and would have to prosecute wealthy senators on trumped up charges, simply in order to get hold of their money. In 301 AD trade was at its height, but there was massive inflation. The Emperor Diocletian introduced detailed controls on pay and prices, but this just led to shortages. There were too many coins in circulation, and these coins contained hardly any silver. Eventually Constantine tackled the problem by introducing new Gold coins to replace the valueless old ones.
Egypt was a Roman province from 30 BC, after Cleopatra was defeated and comitted suicide. Octavian, who had defeated her and who later became Augustus, used the wealth of Egypt to strengthen his position. For a long time Egypt was the "breadbasket" of the empire. Egyptian grain was carried across the mediterranean in barges to feed the people of Rome. From 395 AD to 642 AD Egypt was part of the Byzantine empire. It was then overrun by Arabs.
An emperor is a single person who has control of an empire. Augustus was the first Roman emperor. Before him Rome was a republic, with several groups sharing power. There had been dictator s, with widespread powers, appointed in emergencies, but these appointments were always temporary (see the story of Cincinattus ). The one exception was Julius Caesar, who was made dictator for life, but assassinated shortly afterwards. Augustus took the title "imperator", which we translate as emperor, because the Roman people disliked the idea of having a king. The word imperator meant commander, and was originally a military title. The Roman emperors included Augustus (the first Roman emperor : reigned 27 BC - 14 AD ) Tiberius ( 14 AD - 37 AD ) Caligula ( 37 AD - 41 AD ) Claudius ( 41 AD - 54 AD ) Nero ( 54 AD - 68 AD ) Galba ( 68 AD - 69 AD)... Nerva ( 96 AD - 98 AD ) Trajan ( 98 AD - 117 AD ) Hadrian ( 117 AD - 138 AD ) Antoninus Pius ( 138 AD - 160 AD ) Marcus Aurelius (161 AD- 180 AD ) Commodus ( 180 AD - 192 AD), Pertinax (192 AD - 193 AD) Didius Julianus (193 AD) Septimius Severus (193 AD - 211 AD) Caracalla (211 AD - 217 AD)... Diocletian ( 284 AD - 305 AD) Licinius (308 AD - 324 AD ) Constantine ( 312 AD - 337 AD )... Julian the Apostate (361 AD - 363 AD)... Romulus Augustulus (the last Roman emperor, 475 AD - 476 AD ) See also imperial rule.
A group of countries all controlled from one place. This control is not necessarily by an Emperor - the Roman republic had no single leader, but it managed to gain control of many lands around the mediterranean. See formation of empire. The idea of having an emperor only came about after the republic had been torn apart by civil wars. Then Augustus transformed the government, establishing the principate with himself in control. For conquests by Augustus and the emperors who followed him see expansion of empire. The Roman empire became divided into an eastern and a western half; the eastern half became the Byzantine empire. See also imperial rule.
For early developments of the empire, before the time of Augustus, see formation of empire. Augustus began by conquering Egypt, and he expanded the empire southwards and eastwards to the Arabian and Sahara deserts. He tried to conquer Germany, but lost three legions. He then felt that the empire had reached a natural limit; to the south were impenetrable deserts; to the east, Persia and India were too far away to be conquered, and to the north, Germany was a dangerous, wild land of forests and bogs. The Rhine and Danube rivers seemed to be a sensible limit to the north. To the West was the sea. In his will he left to his successor the advice that the empire should not be expanded any more. Not all the following emperors heeded this advice. Tiberius and Caligula did not extend the empire, but Claudius added Britain in 43 AD, and also the client states Mauretania, Lycia and Thrace. Trajan conquered Dacia.
The patricians were the leading families, the aristocracy of ancient Rome. They were divided into family groups, called gentes (singular gens). They only married among themselves, and most of their marriages were for money or power. Divorce was frequent. The knights, or eques, were a middle class. A person with enough money could qualify as an equestrian, regardless of his background. The plebs were the common people, i.e. ordinary workers. Slaves were people who legally belonged to other people. They were not completely without rights, however, and many were well looked after by their owners.
A bundle of rods tied with a red strap, used as a symbol of power.
The Roman Emperor's treasury, where money was stored in baskets. At first it was separate from the public treasury, at least in theory; the emperor could get a cheap reputation for generosity by loudly proclaiming the large donations that he was making from the fiscus to the public treasury, while quietly making other transfers in the opposite direction. Later, the Fiscus became the main money store for the empire, and was used to pay the army, fleet, and government officials.
Able, respected emperors were few and far between, with one exception. Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius are known to historians as the " five good emperors "; they had faults, but they were able administrators and soldiers. During the 82 years from 98 AD to 180 AD they united and strengthened the empire. By contrast, the emperors who followed immediately afterwards, such as Commodus, were violent or ineffective, or both.
In its early days, Rome was just a small town, with a history of making bandit raids on neighbouring towns. The Greeks had set up some colonies in Italy, and when these were attacked by Rome the Greek commander Pyrrhus stepped in to defend them. This led to fierce battles which Pyrrhus "won", but at such a heavy cost that he ended up worse off than the losers. The Romans gained control of Italy when Pyrrhus gave up his fight against them and returned to Greece. The Romans then fought against the Carthaginians, eventually defeating them and destroying Carthage in 146 BC. This gave them power over much of the Mediterranean sea and North Africa, and parts of Spain. In the same year, they also defeated the Greeks at Corinth, adding much of the eastern Mediterranean to their empire. The last conquests by the republic were of Gaul and by Julius Caesar. For additions to the empire made in the time of the emperors see expansion of empire.
A forum was an open space at the centre of a town or city, surrounded by temples and other public buildings. In English, the plural can be either forums or fora. The B2forum of Rome was between the Palatine and the Capitoline hills. It was drained by the cloaca maxima. It was used for open air meetings and religious ceremonies, and it eventually became filled with monuments such as triumphal arches and columns. Later other fora, such as the forum of Trajan, were built, as markets or as courts of law.
Emperor for seven months, 68 AD - 69 AD After leading the revolt against Nero, Servius Galba was made emperor by the senate, but the commanders who had helped him to defeat Nero did not receive the massive reward which they expected. This angered the Praetorian Guard, and they killed him.
The Gauls were a group of tribes which occupied the country which today is called France, along with parts of Belgium, western Germany and northern Italy. The part of Italy which they occupied was called Cisalpine Gaul ("This-side-of-the-alps Gaul ") by the Romans. The rest was called Transalpine Gaul ("Other-side-of-the-alps Gaul "). Cisalpine Gaul and parts of southern France were conquered and colonised by the Romans in the 2nd century BC. The rest was conquered by Julius Caesar, between 58 and 50 BC. He divided it into four provinces. Towards the end of the Empire there were frequent rebellions and barbarian invasions. Gaul was occupied by Visigoths, Franks and Burgundians, who set up independent kingdoms.
Gladiators fought against each other or against wild animals, for the amusement of a crowd. The contests began in Rome's earliest days, and gradually increased in size. They were usually to the death; when one fighter was at the mercy of the other, the crowd decided whether the loser should live or die. The gladiators were usually slaves or criminals. A regular winner would become popular with the crowds, and might be freed. Emperors were expected to provide spectacular games, with hundreds of pairs of fighters. Most cities had a large arena for these contests. The Roman Colosseum was the greatest of these, holding 50,000 spectators. When it was first opened, there were games lasting 100 days, and on just one day there were fights between 3000 gladiators. The emperor Commodus often fought as a gladiator.
The Lares were gods of the field, and the Penates were gods of the house. Each house would have a small shrine to the lares and penates, who were worshipped at mealtimes and on special occasions. There were also state cults which offered worship to a variety of gods including Ceres, Diana, Juno, Jupiter, Mars, Mithras, Quirinus, Venus and Vesta. Many of the emperors were deified (made into gods ) after their death, and some were even happy to be worshipped while they were still alive. See also religion.
The Goths were a germanic barbarian tribe that originally came from Scandinavia, and had migrated from there to eastern Europe. They became separated into two groups. The Visigoth s, or Western Goth s, settled north of the river Danube. They crossed the Danube to escape from the Huns and then went on to southern and southwestern Europe, defeating the Romans at Adrianople and sacking Rome on the way. The Ostrogoths (east Goth s) settled in the Ukraine. They were defeated by the Hun s, and for a time they seemed to disappear from history, but they later emerged to form an Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy.
Emperor, 117 AD - 138 AD. One of the " five good emperors " He made a tour of the empire, visiting Britain in 122 AD. He abandoned some of the conquests of his predecessor, Trajan. He had a great desire to learn, and was a good poet and architect. He was responsible for the design of the Tivoli villa and gardens, near Rome. This estate contained buildings and landscapes in foreign styles, to remind him of his travels. It included baths, libraries and theatres.
A wall running across Britain, from the Solway Firth in the west to Wallsend-on-Tyne in the east, that was ordered by the emperor Hadrian. It was begun in 122 AD and completed by 136 AD, and formed the boundary of the empire in Britain. Most of it still stands, and it is still an impressive sight. There was a small fort, or "milecastle" every Roman mile, and a larger one every four Roman miles along its length. (A Roman mile was 1000 paces, and was shorter than a modern english mile). It is 118 km (73 miles) long. For a time the Antonine wall replaced it as the frontier.
A Carthaginian General who almost conquered Rome during the second Punic war. He led his army from Carthage to Spain, and then over the alps into Italy. His forces included a number of war elephants. The crossing of the Alps was particularly difficult, with bad weather and ice cold rivers to cross. He did well at first, having victories at lake Trasimenus and at Cannae. He tried to force a decisive battle but his opponent, the Roman general Fabius Cunctator ("the delayer") kept just out of reach all the time. Eventually Hannibal was recalled to Africa to defend Carthage, and was defeated at Zama, and fled. He stayed on the run until eventually the Romans found him and surrounded the house he was in, and he took poison.
A town that was buried, along with Pompeii, when Vesuvius erupted in 79 AD.
see Arminius.
65 BC - 8 BC. Horace was a freed slave who wrote many odes - poems that could be set to music - which were mostly poking fun at Roman society, and at the follies of human nature.
A legendary hero of Rome's early days. The story is that he single-handedly fought the army of the Etruscan king Lars Porsenna, stopping them from crossing a bridge into Rome, while behind him the Romans chopped the bridge down. When the bridge collapsed he swam ashore, wearing full armour.
The huns were a fierce tribe from eastern asia, which overran various other barbarian tribes such as the Alani and Ostrogoths. They invaded the Roman empire in the middle of the 5th century, led by their king, Atilla. They were feared because of their prowess as warriors on horseback, and with bow and arrow. For a while they forced Rome to pay a tribute to them, but in 451 AD they were defeated at Chalons-sur-Marne, in Gaul, by a mixed army of Romans, Goths and Germanic tribes. Another group of invading Huns were defeated in Pannonia, and settled there; that country is now called Hungary.
Underfloor heating in villa s, or in grain stores (to keep the grain dry).
The middle day of each month. See calendar.
The Roman republic was unable to cope with the huge size of the empire. It degenerated into civil war, which only ended when Augustus took the various powers which before had been spread among a group of magistrates. He became the first emperor. Imperial rule : - depended on support from the army. - involved combining all powerful positions under one man. - often led to excesses; some emperors went mad, and ordered thousands of murders. Others were weak, and were killed within months. Emperors made the law, and commanded important military expeditions. They kept the senate, to give the appearance that power was shared, but they made sure that senators would vote the way the emperor wanted. At first emperors were chosen by the senate, who tended to choose the person "adopted" by the previous emperor. Later they were chosen by the army. Didius Julianus bought the position when it was auctioned by the praetorian guard. Later still, Septimius Severus transformed the position into a hereditary kingship by choosing his sons to follow him. The imperial courts grew more lavish and luxurious with time. Towards the end, with rebellions and invasions happening regulary, the empire became too much for one emperor to handle, and it was occasionally shared between several emperors.
The last pagan emperor. He tried to turn the tide against Christianity, but he was killed in battle by a Persian lance, after reigning just two years.
The father of the gods, according to classical Roman religion.
The first day of each month. See calendar.
The language of the western Roman empire. Most modern languages in areas that were once part of the western empire are clearly based on Latin, and for a long time after the fall of the empire Latin was still the language of the church and of scholars. Many English words are actually Latin words. In the east, Latin was used for laws and business, but otherwise Greek was the main language. The plain to the south of Rome was called Latium, and the people who lived there were called Latins.
A major division of the Roman army. In republican times, a complete legion consisted of 3000 foot soldiers and 300 cavalrymen. Later it cosisted of 5000 to 6000 foot soldiers. A legion was divided into cohorts.
See Augustan age, Horace, Livy, Ovid, Virgil.
(59 BC - 17 AD ), The most famous Roman historian, he wrote a history of Rome in 142 volumes. He was the first person to recognise that Claudius might become a good historian.
Magistrates were elected officials who organised the running of the empire. The consuls were the most important, especially in the days of the republic, before there was an emperor. Just below the consuls was the Praetor, responsible for justice in the city. Aediles looked after the city (repair of temples, streets, sewers etc), weights and measures in markets, and some public games. Quaestors were responsible for finances. Tribunes were chosen by the Plebaian assembly, and represented the pleb s, or lower classes. They were thought of as "protectors of the people". Patricians were not allowed to become tribunes. Instead, those with political ambition worked their way up through the other positions. Most postitions could only be held for a limited time. Former magistrated were entitled to enter the senate.
The Roman god of war. Because of the importance of war to Rome, he was second only to Jupiter. There were many festivals in his honour, with war dances, chariot races and other rituals.
Mithras was a Persian god who became popular in the Roman Empire. His worship was spread by the Roman legion s, and one shrine was found in London in 1953. Mithras was called the god of light, and his followers said that they were dedicated to combating the dark forces of evil.
The fifth Roman Emperor; Lived from 37 AD to 68 AD, reigned 54 AD to 68 AD. He was the stepson of Claudius. He became emperor at the age of 16, as a result of the scheming of his mother Agrippina, who eliminated anyone in the way, mostly by poisoning. Nero actually made a good start. He ignored the evil advice of his mother, and he did away with injustices such as secret trials, and promised more freedom; but later, after he ordered his mother's death (in 59 AD), he realised that he could do anything he liked, and became a tyrant. He preferred acting in the theatre and making music to the duties of being emperor. In 64 AD there was a great fire in Rome, and Nero had the city rebuilt in Greek style, with a large palace for himself. He began a persecution of Christians after blaming them for the fire. In 68 AD there was a revolt, the legions chose Galba as Emperor, and Nero comitted suicide.
Julius Caesar's adopted son and chosen successor. He was only 18 when Caesar was killed, and at first he worked together with Mark Antony and Aemilius Lepidus, forming a " Triumvirate ". When Mark Antony was away from Rome, Octavian was able to increase his own popularity, and in 31 BC he defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra at actium. In 27 BC he became the first Emperor, and took the title Augustus. See Augustus for his later career.
The German warrior chief who ended the western Roman empire by deposing the last Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustulus, in 476 AD. Odoacer then became the first barbarian king of Italy.
The eastern Goths (i.e. those that had formed a kingdom in the Ukraine) were called Ostrogoths. They were defeated by the Hun s, and little was heard of them for eighty years or so, but eventually a group of them turned up near the Danube, and in 493 AD they formed a kingdom in Italy.
43 BC - 17 AD. Publius Ovidius Naso, a poet who wrote Metamorphoses, a collection of myths and legends in which every story involves some transformation. (For example Echo, who could only speak to repeat what was said to her, faded away until only her voice was left). He also wrote some love poems; the most famous was the " art of love". He was banished by Augustus to a town on the Black sea. No reason was given for the banishment, but Augustus was said to have been angered by the " art of love".
One of the seven hills of rome, very near the centre.
One of the Roman aristocracy. At first, only patricians could enter the senate, and they had many other privileges. On the other hand, a patrician could not become a tribune. Later, most of the special privileges disappeared, but the patricians still kept themselves apart from the common people. Many of them were very wealthy. See also pleb.
The "peace of Rome ". Rome collected taxes from provinces, and gave peace in return. The Roman army kept the peace within the borders of the empire, so that many citizens were able to accumulate wealth. The rich citizens had a leisurely, pleasure-loving life and imported many luxuries from the provinces.
Persecution of Christians by Rome began when the emperor Nero blamed them for the great fire of 64 AD. There were widespread persecutions in the reigns of Marcus Aurelius and of Diocletian. At other times it was usual for the emperors to punish any Christians who were discovered, but to ban any deliberate searching out for them. Christians often escaped from persecution by hiding in the catacombs. Persecution of Christianity continued, on and off, until Constantine's edict of toleration in 313 AD. Usually it was because the Christians would not worship the emperor or make sacrifices to the other gods.
Roman emperor for just two months, in 193 AD. Pertinax was popular with the people, because he tried to deal fairly with them and to end the injustice and tyranny that had flourished under Commodus. He was not so popular with the Praetorian guard, who had done quite well out of that tyranny. They killed him, and then held an auction, giving the empire to the highest bidder.
One of the lower classes of Rome, as opposed to the Patrician s, or upper class. At first they had very little political power; only patricians could enter the senate, and the lower classes were treated badly, which was one of the factors which led to civil war. Later, however, the distinction between pleb and patrician more or less disappeared. The plebs were represented by tribune s, who were chosen by the plebaian assembly.
An assembly of the plebs. It chose the tribune s, the representatives of the plebs.
A town fourteen miles south-east of Naples that was buried under 12 feet of volcanic ash in 79 AD, and disappeared from the map. Official excavations began in 1748, and now two-thirds of it have been excavated, making a huge and impressive spectacle. Visitors can now view the mosaics, statuettes and wall decorations almost as they were nineteen centuries ago.
One of the consul s, along with Caesar, and also a member of the first triumvirate (a group of three people sharing power). He stayed in Rome while Caesar conquered Gaul, and got the senate on his side. The senate ordered Caesar to return to Rome, leaving his army behind. When Caesar crossed the river Rubicon with his army, Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was murdered.
The site of Rome, at the lowest bridging-place of the river Tiber, was a significant factor in its early prosperity. Because of this, the most important priests were called the pontifexes, or "bridge builders", and the chief of them was given the title " Pontifex Maximus", or "chief bridge builder". Augustus took this title for himself; later, the popes adopted it, and today the pope is called Pontiff of Rome.
The Bishop of Rome. In the early days of Christianity a hierarchy arose; the bishops of large cities were looked to by others for advice and instruction. It was natural that the bishop of the world's greatest city should come to be seen by some as the leader of the church. Also, according to tradition the leader of the apostles, Saint Peter, was killed in Rome, and buried on the Vatican hill. The Popes were regarded as his successors. See also Pontifex.
A chief law officer. At first there was only one praetor, but later more were added to deal with cases involving foreigners, or to deal with particular types of crime - one for murder, one for robbery and so on. The praetors came just below the consuls in the scale of importance of magistrates.
The household troops of the Roman emperor, created by Augustus as a force of nine cohort s, spread over a wide area in Italy. In the reign of Tiberius they became concentrated near Rome, and this gave them a big influence politically. The Praetorian guard often had a part in the selection of a new emperor, or the assassination of an unpopular one. For example, Galba and Pertinax were both killed by them.
A deputy magistrate.
Princeps was a title, meaning "first citizen", given to Augustus. Because of this title, the form of government which he introduced, which looked like a republic but was really a monarchy (because the senate and the various magistrates had very little power), came to be known as the principate.
A consul whose term of office, was extended beyond the regular term of one year. Most provincial governors were proconsuls.
An agent of the Emperor.
The empire outside italy was divided into province s, each of which had a Roman governor and had to pay tribute to Rome. Governors were either consuls or praetor s, and these became proconsuls or propraetors if their powers were extended for more than one year. From 27 BC there were two types of province. The older provinces were supervised by the senate, and the newer ones by the Emperor. The tribute from the provinces helped to pay for the army; the system of gathering taxes was well organised, with a regular census to find out what resources there were to be taxed. In return, there was the pax Romana, and experienced governors and officials to implement Roman laws. Britain was originally one province, but was later divided into four. Gaul was divided into four provinces - Gallia Belgica, Celtica, Aquitania and Narbonensis. Other provinces included: Africa - the parts of north Africa captured from Carthage Alpes Maritimae - the foothills of the alps near the mediterranean Asia - the western part of Asia Minor (Turkey). Dacia - modern Romania, captured by Trajan Egypt - captured by Octavian after Cleopatra's defeat Illyricum (later divided into Dalmatia and Pannonia) - the modern Yugoslavia and Albania. Raetia, Noricum, Pannonia, Moesia - along the south side of the Danube Numidia - modern Algeria; originally a client kingdom Paphlagonia - Northern Asia Minor (Turkey)
The people of Carthage originally came from Phoenicia, and the Romans called them "Poeni", so the wars against them were called the Punic wars. In the second Punic war the Carthaginians, led by Hannibal, almost managed to win, but were eventually defeated at Zama. At the end of the third Punic war, Carthage was destroyed (in 146 BC ).
A magistrate whose job was to look after the treasury. In the early days of the republic there were only two, but the number gradually increased to about twenty. An ambitious young patrician would usually try to become a quaestor as his first step up the ladder to the highest positions.
In Roman religion there were many gods, and Emperor worship was encouraged. The gods had many interesting stories told about them, but in these stories they could be crueller and more jealous and violent than any ordinary person. The stories often contradicted one another, so that many people could not believe in the gods, or could not admire them. Many people turned to Christianity instead, although there was often persecution of Christians.
From about 1450 AD onwards some people in the west began to take an interest in Europe's Greek and Roman past. They re-discovered the art, sculpture, architecture, literature, science and philosophy which had once made Rome great. Some statues were literally dug up from the ground.
After they had defeated the Etruscans, the Romans distrusted kingship, and created a government that was led by the Senate, but with some power given to various popular assemblies and magistrates. This was called the republic, (res publica, or "rule of the people"). The power was carefully balanced so that no one person could upset the system, and magistrates were only elected for a limited time, usually a year or two. Former magistrates would obtain a place in the senate.
Roman roads were very well built, and usually very straight. Troops could move very rapidly along them. By the 2nd century A.D. the empire had over 50,000 miles (80,000 kilometres) of first class roads, and 200,000 miles (320,000 kilometres) of secondary roads.
A lot of Roman culture was borrowed from Greece. Plays were based on Greek plays, or were straightforward translations of Greek plays. The philosophical schools came originally from Greece, and the Roman gods were Greek gods, but with different names. Where Rome differed from Greece was in its particular traditions and forms of government; the importance given to the army, and to the possession of military power. Also, the gladiator fights, wild beast hunts and chariot races were definitely Roman in origin.
The city, On the river Tiber, which was the capital of the Roman empire for most of its history. According to legend it was founded by Romulus and Remus, in 753 BC. The site covered seven hills. The area between the Palatine hill and the Capitoline hill became the centre after it was drained by the cloaca maxima. At the height of the empire, in about 100 AD, Rome was estimated to have more than a million inhabitants. Most emperors had some monument or public building added as a memorial to themselves; see bath, forum, colosseum, temple, triumphal arch. Nero had much of the city rebuilt after a fire. However, people still lived in crowded, unsafe temements. Rome was captured by barbarians in 410 AD and 455 AD - see sack of Rome. It then fell into ruin, as people stripped the remaining marble and gold from the buildings.
Romulus and Remus were the twin brothers who founded Rome, according to legend. There are various different stories, but they all agree that the twins were abandoned as children, and brought up by a she-wolf. Later, while Rome was being built, Romulus killed Remus in an argument about the position of the city, or about the height of the walls.
The last emperor of Rome (475 - 476 AD ). He was only a boy and had no real power. Most of the western empire had been overrun by barbarian s, and Rome itself had been captured twice (see sack of rome ). Romulus Augustulus was dismissed in 476 AD by a German warrior, Odoacer. He was given a pension, and sent to live in a castle in the bay of Naples. Odoacer became king of Italy.
Rome was sacked (captured and plundered) in 410 AD by the Visigoth s, led by Alaric. They pillaged for three days, taking much treasure, but the pope persuaded them to spare much of the city, especially the churches. In 455 AD Rome was sacked again, this time by the Vandal s, who spent a fortnight plundering and carried off many valuable works of art.
The main location of political debate. At first, only patricians could be members. Later, some magistrates automatically became senators at the end of their term of office. The first emperors were elected by the senate, but it usually chose to accept the person that the previous emperor had named as his successor. Towards the end of the empire, the emperors were chosen by the army, and the senate had very little power. Reformed by Augustus
The seven hills of Rome were the Palatine, the Capitoline,
Emperor from 193 AD to 211 AD. Septimius Severus was a provincial governor when pertinax was killed by the praetorian guard. Promising to avenge Pertinax, he was proclained emperor by his troops. He was the first Roman Emperor to come originally from North Africa. In his old age he took his sons, Caracalla and Geta, to Britain in an attempt to complete the conquest of that island. He tried to ensure that his sons would share the empire after his death, but Caracalla killed Geta.
Slaves were people who were considered to belong to other people. Roman slaves were originally people captured in successful wars, and put to work in the fields. Later they were joined by Roman soldiers who could not pay their debts because they had been forced to abandon their farms in order to fight for Rome. They became the slaves of the patricians to whom they owed money. This led to a great deal of resentment, and between 73 BC and 71 BC there was a rebellion, led by Spartacus, a slave gladiator. It failed. Spartacus died in a battle, and 6000 slaves were crucified. In the time of Claudius the slaves outnumbered the free people (citizens and provincials) of the Roman world. Slavery was an accepted way of life, and many slaves were household servants, some with important positions as secretaries. Slaves were also used as gladiators.
Every legion had a standard-bearer, who carried the standard for that legion, a decorated staff which was treated as a sacred object. They were sometimes called eagles, because they had on them the carving of an eagle.
See fasces, standard, triumphal arch.
50 AD - 120 AD. A Roman historian, known for his biography of his father-in-law Agricola, and for his "annals", a history of Rome from 14 AD to 68 AD, and "histories" covering 69 AD to 96 AD.
Roman technology was one of the biggest factors behind their military success. They defeated Carthage by developing ships to match the carthaginian ships, and a special gangplank for boarding enemy ships, which allowed them to fight with swords, instead of ramming and sinking. They devised engines such as catapults for their land wars. Having conquered, they made improvements which allowed towns to support huge populations. They drained swampy land - see cloaca maxima. They provided water with aqueducts. They lit the sea with lighthouses, and speeded land transport with well built straight roads. Their mastery of concrete, and of the arch, allowed them to build huge structures such as the baths of Caracalla. Many of the bridges and aqueducts they built are still in use today. Some of the things which they developed, such as underfloor central heating ( hypocaust s), disappeared with the end of the empire and only came back recently.
42 BC - 37 AD. Roman Emperor from 14 AD, after the death of Augustus. At first Tiberius was a moderate and able ruler. He reduced waste in the treasury, and made reasonable laws. However, he encouraged the actions of "delatores", paid informers who denounced both high and low, often on invented charges. No-one was safe. For the last ten years of his life he made his capital on Capri. He arranged terrible tortures for his enemies, and, as he descended into madness, he killed people at random. He chose Caligula as his successor, who eventually turned out to be even less sane and more dangerous than he was himself. In 37 AD he fell ill, and was expected to die. Caligula was proclaimed emperor. Then Tiberius started to recover. To avoid an unpleasant situation, the Praetorian commander smothered him in a heap of blankets.
Rome was a huge city which had very little industry, and could not exist without trade with the far corners of the known world. During the reign of the Antonine Emperors ( Antoninus Pius and his successors), trade expanded greatly, with ever larger ships carrying wine, slave s, oil, corn, etc. Egypt was known as the breadbasket of the empire, producing large amounts of wheat which fed the Roman armies. Britain too was a major grain producer. Spices came from Asia.
One of the " five good emperors ", reigned from 98 AD to 117 AD. He conquered Dacia, which is now Romania. See expansion of empire.
A tribune was a leader elected by the plebaeian assembly. and he represented the plebs, or lower classes. They were thought of as "protectors of the people". They had the right to " veto " or stop the passing of any new law. Patricians were not allowed to become tribunes.
The triumph was a public celebration after a battle had been won, with a procession through the streets, and all the buildings decked with garlands. 274 AD Aurelian paraded captives together with 20 elephants and 200 wild animals.
An arch erected to commemorate a triumph.
A group of three people ruling together. The first triumvirate was Julius Caesar, Pompey and Crassus. The second triumvirate was Mark Antony, Octavian and Marcus Aemilius.
A German tribe who, like many others, were displaced by the huns. They fled to Gaul, where they were Joined by the Alani. They then moved on, some to Spain and others to North Africa, where they captured Carthage 439 AD. The African Vandals became pirates, and in 455 AD they Sacked Rome (see sack of rome ). They spent a fortnight looting, and did so much damage that even today mindless wrecking is called vandalism. The north African Vandal kingdom was brought to an end by the Byzantine general Belisarius in 533 AD.
" Veto " is latin for "I forbid". The tribunes had the right to veto or prevent the passing of any new law. Also, one consul could veto the decisions of the other.
Villas were large country houses owned by rich people. These were comfortable, often with underfloor central heating (the hypocaust ), and sumptuous decoration such as mosaics.
Publius Virgilius Maro (70 BC - 19 BC ), The greatest Roman poet. His best known work is the Aeneid. He also wrote the Eclogues, a set of poems about country life and loves, and the Georgics, a celebration of the joys of farming, and also a practical manual, explaining how to raise different crops and animals.
The Visigoths were the western Goth s, i.e. those that had settled just north of the river Danube. They were defeated by the Hun s,and the survivors applied to enter the Roman Empire. They were allowed to cross the Danube, on condition that they left their weapons behind. They crossed the Danube frontier in 376 AD, but they were badly treated by Roman officers, who diverted food intended for them, and enslaved some of them. Soon there were bands of plundering Visigoths roaming the countryside. Evidently, some at least had managed to keep their weapons. They decisively defeated the Romans at Adrianople in 378 AD. They then agreed to help defend the empire in return for payments. They sacked Rome in 410 AD, led by Alaric (see sack of Rome ). They went on to settle in Southern Gaul, and then in Spain.
Not everyone in imperial Rome was prosperous. Often there was little work in Rome for the poor, and they depended on the public grain dole and on charity. The urban plebs lived in closely packed tenements which often collapsed. For them, life would consist mostly of work (when available) and the occasional visit to the amphitheatre to watch racing or gladiator fights. The men of the upper classes would, after service in the army, try to become important magistrates, and they would attend debates in the senate. Women were treated as second class citizens, though quite often a woman was the power behind the throne, guiding a husband through his career. They were expected to stay at home and bring up the children. Occasionally moves were made to give them more freedom, but there were always people like Cato the censor around, ready to put a stop to female extravagance and independence. Religion was an important part of life; each house had its own household gods, the lares and penates, and there were also numerous public festivals for the more important gods. In the later days of the empire there was also Christianity, and various "mystery" religions such as Mithraism, to choose from. For the way of life of soldiers, see Army.
© 1997 M.T.Gradwell, Ambition Data Services Ltd.
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